Sumerian Mythology
Date: 2 Feb 1995 04:05:46 GMT Organization: Massachusetts
Institute of Technology Lines: 531 Message-ID: <3gplmq$hda@senator-bedfellow.MIT.EDU>
NNTP-Posting-Host: bolognese.mit.edu Sumerian Mythology FAQ (Version
1.2) by Christopher Siren, 1992,1994 last changes: Jan, 30 1995
- extended sources, checked spelling, reduced the number of direct
quotations and some of the Inanna and me related repetition.
note: This FAQ is largely based on an anthropology paper which
I wrote in 1992, using the sources detailed below. Contents:
I. Overview II. What do we know about Sumerian Cosmology? III.
What Deities did they worship? A. The Four Primary Dieties B.
The Seven who decreed fate C. The Annuna and others IV. What
about the Underworld? V. What are 'me' anyway? VI. I've heard
that there are a lot of Biblical parallels in Sumerian literature.
What are they? VII. Source material VIII. Other books of interest.
I. Overview - The religion of the ancient Sumerians has left
its mark on the entire middle east. Not only are its temples
and ziggurats scattered about the region, but the literature,
cosmogony and rituals influenced their neighbors to such an extent
that we can see echoes of Sumer in the Judeo-Christian-Islamic
tradition today. From these ancient temples, and to a greater
extent, through cuneiform writings of hymns, myths, lamentations,
and incantations, archaeologists and mythographers afford the
modern reader a glimpse into the religious world of the Sumerians.
Each city housed a temple that was the seat of a major god in
the Sumerian pantheon, as the gods controlled the powerful forces
which often dictated a human's fate. The city leaders had a duty
to please the town's patron deity, not only for the good will
of that god or goddess, but also for the good will of the other
deities in the council of gods. The priesthood initially held
this role, and even after secular kings ascended to power, the
clergy still held great authority through the interpretation
of omens and dreams. Many of the secular kings claimed divine
right; Sargon of Agade, for example claimed to have been chosen
by Ishtar/Inanna. (Crawford 1991: 21-24) The rectangular central
shrine of the temple, known as a 'cella,' had a brick altar or
offering table in front of a statue of the temple's deity. The
cella was lined on its long ends by many rooms for priests and
priestesses. These mud-brick buildings were decorated with cone
geometrical mosaics, and the occasional fresco with human and
animal figures. These temple complexes eventually evolved into
towering ziggurats. (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983: 119) The temple
was staffed by priests, priestesses, musicians, singers, castrates
and hierodules. Various public rituals, food sacrifices, and
libations took place there on a daily basis. There were monthly
feasts and annual, New Year celebrations. During the later, the
king would be married to Inanna as the resurrected fertility
god Dumuzi, whose exploits are dealt with below. When it came
to more private matters, a Sumerian remained devout. Although
the gods preferred justice and mercy, they had also created evil
and misfortune. A Sumerian had little that he could do about
it. Judging from Lamentation records, the best one could do in
times of duress would be to "plead, lament and wail, tearfully
confessing his sins and failings." Their family god or city
god might intervene on their behalf, but that would not necessarily
happen. After all, man was created as a broken, labor saving,
tool for the use of the gods and at the end of everyone's life,
lay the underworld, a generally dreary place. (Wolkstein & Kramer
1983: pp.123-124) II. What do we know about Sumerian Cosmology?
From verses scattered throughout hymns and myths, one can compile
a picture of the universe's (anki) creation according to the
Sumerians. The primeval sea (abzu) existed before anything else
and within that, the heaven (an) and the earth (ki) were formed.
The boundary between heaven and earth was a solid (perhaps tin)
vault, and the earth was a flat disk. Within the vault lay the
gas-like 'lil', or atmosphere, the brighter portions therein
formed the stars, planets, sun, and moon. (Kramer, The Sumerians
1963: pp. 112-113) Each of the four major Sumerian deities is
associated with one of these regions. An, god of heaven, may
have been the main god of the pantheon prior to 2500 BC., although
his importance gradually waned. Ki is likely to be the original
name of the earth goddess, whose name more often appears as Ninhursag
(queen of the mountains), Ninmah (the exalted lady), or Nintu
(the lady who gave birth). It seems likely that these two were
the progenitors of most of the gods. III. What Deities did they
worship? A. The Primary Deities An An, god of heaven, may have
been the main god of the pantheon prior to 2500 BC., although
his importance gradually waned. It seems likely that he and Ki/Ninhursag
were the progenitors of most of the gods. His primary temple
was in Erech. He and Enlil give various gods, goddesses, and
kings their earthly regions of influence and their laws. Ninhursag
Ki is likely to be the original name of the earth goddess, whose
name more often appears as Ninhursag (queen of the mountains),
Ninmah (the exalted lady), or Nintu (the lady who gave birth).
It seems likely that she and An were the progenitors of most
of the gods. She is the mother goddess and assists in the creation
of man. There she added constructive criticism to Enki as he
shaped several versions of man from the heart of the clay over
the Abzu. In Dilmun, she bore eight new trees from Enki. When
he then ate her children, she cursed him with eight wounds. After
being persuaded by Enlil to undo her curse, she bore Enki eight
new children which undid the wounds of the first ones. Enlil
An and Ki's union produced Enlil (Lord of 'lil'). Enlil was the
air- god and leader of the pantheon from at least 2500 BC. He
assumed most of An's powers. He is glorified as "'the father
of the gods,' 'the king of heaven and earth,' ' the king of all
the lands'". Kramer portrays him as a patriarchal figure,
who is both creator and disciplinarian. Enlil effectuates the
dawn, the growth of plants, and bounty. He also invents agricultural
tools such as the plow. He is also banished to the nether world
(kur) for his rape of Ninlil, his intended bride, but returns
with the first product of their union, the moon god Sin (also
known as Nanna). (Kramer, Sumerians 1963: pp.118-121) The me
were assembled by Enlil in Ekur and given to Enki to guard and
impart to the world, beginning with Eridu, Enki's center of worship.
He helps Enki again when he was cursed by Ninhursag. Enlil and
a fox entreat her to return and undo her curse. Enki Contrary
to the translation of his name, Enki is not the lord of the earth,
but of the abzu (the watery abyss and also semen) and of wisdom.
This contradiction leads Kramer and Maier to postulate that he
was once known as En-kur, lord of the monster-infested underworld,
the area which contained the Abzu. He did struggle with Kur (a
dragon-like creature who ruled the realm Kur) as mentioned in
the prelude to Gilgamesh, and presumably was victorious and thereby
able to claim the title "Lord of Kur" (the realm).
He is a god of water, creation, and fertility. He also holds
dominion over the land. He is the keeper of the me, the divine
laws. (Kramer & Maier Myths of Enki 1989: pp. 2-3) The me were
assembled by Enlil in Ekur and given to Enki to guard and impart
to the world, beginning with Eridu, his center of worship. From
there, he guards the me and imparts them on the people. He directs
the me towards Ur and Meluhha and Dilmun, organizing the world
with his decrees. Later, Inanna comes to Enki and complains at
having been given too little power from his decrees. In a different
text, she gets Enki drunk and he grants her more powers, arts,
crafts, and attributes - a total of ninety-four me. Inanna parts
company with Enki to deliver the me to her cult center at Erech.
Enki recovers his wits and tries to recover the me from her,
but she arrives safely in Erech with them. (Kramer & Maier 1989:
pp. 38-68) Enki sails for the Kur, presumably to rescue Ereshkigal
after she was given over to Kur. He is assailed by creatures
with stones. He is friendly to Inanna and rescued her from Kur
by sending two sexless beings to negotiate with, and flatter
Ereshkigal. They gave her the Bread of Life and the Water of
Life, which restored her. He blessed the paradisiacal land of
Dilmun, to have plentiful water and palm trees. With Ninhursag,
he created eight new types of trees there. He then consumed these
children and was cursed by Ninhursag, with one wound for each
plant consumed. Enlil and a fox act on Enki's behalf to call
back Ninhursag in order to undo the damage. She joins with Enki
again and bears eight new children, one to cure each of the wounds.
At the direction of his mother Nammu and with some constructive
criticism from Ninhursag, he created man from the heart of the
clay over the Abzu. Several flawed versions were created before
the final version was made. III B. In addition to the four primary
deities, there were hundreds of others. A group of seven "decreed
the fates" - these probably included the first four, as
well as Nanna, his son Utu, the sun god and a god of justice,
and Nanna's daughter Inanna, goddess of love and war. Inanna
Nanna's daughter Inanna, goddess of love and war. Inanna also
visits Kur, which results in a myth reminiscent of the Greek
seasonal story of Persephone. She sets out to witness the funeral
rites of her sister-in-law Ereshkigal's husband Gugalana, the
Bull of Heaven. She takes precaution before setting out, by telling
her servant Ninshubur to seek assistance from Enlil, Nanna, or
Enki at their shrines, should she not return. Inanna knocks on
the outer gates of Kur and the gatekeeper, Neti, questions her.
He consults with queen Ereshkigal and then allows Inanna to pass
through the seven gates of the underworld. After each gate, she
is required to remove adornments and articles of clothing, until
after the seventh gate, she is naked. The Annuna pass judgment
against her and Ereshkigal killed her and hung her on the wall.
(see Ereshkigal) (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983 p. 60) Inanna is rescued
by the intervention of Enki. He creates two sexless creatures
that empathize with Ereshkigal's suffering, and thereby gain
a gift - Inanna's corpse. They restore her to life with the Bread
of Life and the Water of Life, but the Sumerian underworld has
a conservation of death law. No one can leave without providing
someone to stay in their stead. Inanna is escorted by galla/demons
past Ninshubur and members of her family. She doesn't allow them
to claim anyone until she sees Dumuzi on his throne in Uruk.
They then seize Dumuzi, but he escapes them twice by transforming
himself, with the aid of Utu. Eventually he is caught and slain.
Inanna spies his sister, Geshtinanna, in mourning and they go
to Dumuzi. She allows Dumuzi, the shepherd, to stay in the underworld
only six months of the year, while Geshtinanna will stay the
other six. (Wolkstein & Kramer pp. 60-89) As with the Greek story
of the kidnapping of Persephone, this linked the changing seasons,
the emergence of the plants from the ground, with the return
of a harvest deity from the nether world. (see also Dumuzi) Geshtinanna
is also associated with growth, but where her brother rules over
the spring harvested grain, she rules over the autumn harvested
vines (Wolkstein & Kramer p. 168). Another important concept
in Sumerian theology, was that of me. (see section V.) The me
were universal decrees of divine authority. They are the invocations
that spread arts, crafts, and civilization. Enki became the keeper
of the me. Inanna comes to Enki and complains at having been
given too little power from his decrees. In a different text,
she gets Enki drunk and he grants her more powers, arts, crafts,
and attributes - a total of ninety-four me. Inanna parts company
with Enki to deliver the me to her cult center at Erech. Enki
recovers his wits and tries to recover the me from her, but she
arrives safely in Erech with them. (Kramer & Maier 1989: pp.
38-68) Nanna Nanna is another name for the moon god Sin. He is
the product of Enlil's rape of Ninlil. (Kramer, 1963, pp. 146-7.)
Nanna was the tutelary deity of Ur (Kramer 1963 p. 66), appointed
as king of that city by An and Enlil. He established Ur-Nammu
as his mortal representative, establishing the third Ur dynasty.
Nanna was married to Ningal and they produced Inanna and Utu.
He rests in the Underworld every month, and there decrees the
fate of the dead. He averts a flood of his city by visiting Enlil
in Nippur on a boat loaded with gifts and pleading with him.
He refuses to send aid to Inanna when she is trapped in the underworld.
Utu Son of Nanna and Ningal, god of the Sun and of Justice, Utu
goes to the underworld at the end of every day and while there
decrees the fate of the dead. He aided Dumuzi in his flight from
the galla demons by helping him to transform into different creatures.
He opened the "ablal" of the Underworld for Enkidu,
to allow him to escape, at the behest of Enki. Through Enki's
orders, he also brings water up from the earth in order to irrigate
Dilmun, the garden paradise, the place where the sun rises. He
does not help Inanna when she has difficulties with her huluppu-tree.
III. C. The Annuna At the next level were fifty "great gods",
possibly the same as the Anunna, although several gods confined
to the underworld are specifically designated Anunna, An's children.
(Kramer 1963: pp. 122-123). Ninlil Ninlil was the intended bride
of Enlil. Enlil raped her and was then banished to the nether
world (kur). She follows him to the nether world, where she gives
birth to the moon god Sin (also known as Nanna). They have three
more children in the nether world who remain there so that Sin
may be allowed to leave. (Kramer, Sumerians 1963: pp.146-7).
Her chief shrine was in the Tummal district of Nippur. Nammu
Nammu is the Goddess of the watery abyss and is Enki's mother.
She instructs him on how, with the help of Nimmah/Ninhursag to
create man. Ningal She is Nanna's wife and the mother of Inanna
and Utu. She begs and weeps before An and Enlil for them not
to flood her city, Ur. Ereshkigal Ereshkigal is the queen of
the underworld, who is either given to Kur in the underworld
or given dominion over the underworld in the prelude to Gilgamesh.
She has a palace there and is due a visit by those entering Kur.
When Inanna trespassed on her domain, Ereshkigal: ...fastened
on Inanna the eye of death. She spoke against her the word of
wrath. She uttered against her the cry of guilt She struck her.
Inanna was turned into a corpse, ...And was hung from a hook
on the wall.( Wolkstein & Kramer 1983 p. 60) She was married
to Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven, until he died. After his death,
she has been willing to grant favors to those who sympathize
with her plight. Nidaba - the goddess of writing and the patron
deity of the edubba (palace archives). Ninisinna (Nininsinna)
- patron goddess of the city Isin. She is the "hierodule
of An" Dumuzi (demigod) He has a palace in Kur, and is due
a visit by those entering Kur. He is Inanna's husband. In life,
he was the shepherd king of Uruk. He successfully courted and
married Inanna. Following the consummation of this marriage,
he was given divine powers over the fertility of plants and animals,
especially over grain. Upon her rescue from the dead, he was
pursued by galla demons, which he eluded for a time with the
aid of Utu. Eventually he was caught and slain; however, he was
partially freed from his stay in the underworld by the actions
of his sister Geshtinanna. Now he resides there only half of
the year, while she lives there the other half year; this represents
seasonal change (see Inanna and Geshtinanna). He is also known
as Tammuz. Gilgamesh (demigod) After his adventures, he is given
a palace in the nether world and venerated as lesser god of the
dead. It is respectful to pay him a visit upon arrival. If he
knew you in life or is of your kin he may explain the rules of
Kur to you. (see Enkidu) Geshtinanna (demigoddess) She is Dumuzi's
sister. After his death, she visited him in the underworld with
Inanna, and was allowed to take his place there for six months
out of the year. Her time in the underworld and her periodic
emergence from it are linked with her new divine authority over
the autumn vines and wine. (see also Inanna, Dumuzi) Gugalanna
(monster) The Bull of Heaven, Ereshkigal's husband. Kur (monster)
Kur is the name of the monster-infested underworld, the area
which contained the Abzu. Enki also struggled with Kur (a dragon-like
creature who ruled the realm Kur) as mentioned in the prelude
to Gilgamesh, and presumably was victorious and thereby able
to claim the title "Lord of Kur" (the realm). Enkidu
(hero) The main body of the Gilgamesh tale includes a trip to
the nether- world. Enkidu enters the "Great Dwelling"
through a gate, in order to recover Gilgamesh's pukku and mikku,
objects of an uncertain nature. He broke several taboos of the
underworld, including the wearing of clean clothes and sandals,
'good' oil, carrying a weapon or staff, making a noise, or behaving
normally towards ones family (Kramer 1963: pp. 132-133). For
these violations he was "held fast by 'the outcry of the
nether world'". Intervention by Enki, rescued the hero.
Gods in Kur with palaces who are due reverence: Nergal - Nergal
is perhaps the co-ruler of Kur with Ereshkigal, he is more prominent
in Babylonian literature. Namtar Hubishag Ningishzida - the god
of dawn Dimpemekug - due gifts, no palace the scribe of Kur -
due gifts, no palace The Sumerians had many other deities as
well, most of which appear to have been minor. IV. What about
the Underworld? The underworld of the Sumerians is revealed,
to some extent, by a composition about the death and afterlife
of the king and warlord Ur-Nammu. After having died on the battlefield,
Ur- Nammu arrives below, where he offers sundry gifts and sacrifices
to the "seven gods" of the nether world: ...Nergal,
[the deified] Gilgamesh, Ereshkigal [the queen of the underworld,
who is either given to Kur in the underworld or given dominion
over the underworld in the prelude to Gilgamesh (Kramer & Maier
1989: p. 83) (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983: p. 4)] , Dumuzi [the shepherd,
Inanna's husband], Namtar, Hubishag, and Ningishzida - each in
his own palace; he also presented gifts to Dimpimekug and to
the "scribe of the nether- world."... [After arriving
at his assigned spot] ...certain of the dead were turned over
to him, perhaps to be his attendants, and Gilgamesh, his beloved
brother, explained to him the rules and regulations of the nether
world. (Kramer 1963: p. 131) Another tablet indicates that the
sun, moon, and their respective gods, spent time in the underworld
as well. The sun journeyed there after setting, and the moon
rested there at the end of the month. Both Utu and Nanna '''decreed
the fate' of the dead" while there.(Kramer 1963: p. 132)
Dead heroes ate bread, drank, and quenched the dead's thirst
with water. The gods of the nether world, the deceased, and his
city, were prayed to for the benefit of the dead and his family.
The Sumerian version of Gilgamesh includes a trip to the nether
world as well. In the prologue, Enki sails for the Kur, presumably
to rescue Ereshkigal after she was given over to Kur. He is assailed
by creatures with stones. The main body of the tale includes
a trip to the nether world as well. Enkidu enters the "Great
Dwelling" through a gate, in order to recover Gilgamesh's
pukku and mikku, objects of an uncertain nature. He broke several
taboos of the underworld, including the wearing of clean clothes
and sandals, 'good' oil, carrying a weapon or staff, making a
noise, or behaving normally towards ones family (Kramer 1963:
pp. 132-133). For these violations he was "held fast by
'the outcry of the nether world'". Intervention by Enki,
rescued the hero. Inanna also visits Kur, which results in a
myth reminiscent of the Greek seasonal story of Persephone. She
sets out to witness the funeral rites of her sister-in-law Ereshkigal's
husband Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven. She takes precaution before
setting out, by telling her servant Ninshubur to seek assistance
from Enlil, Nanna, or Enki at their shrines, should she not return.
Inanna knocks on the outer gates of Kur and the gatekeeper, Neti,
questions her. He consults with queen Ereshkigal and then allows
Inanna to pass through the seven gates of the underworld. After
each gate, she is required to remove adornments and articles
of clothing, until after the seventh gate, she is naked. The
Annuna pass judgment against her and Ereshkigal slays her and
hangs her on the wall (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983 p. 60) Inanna
is rescued by the intervention of Enki. He creates two sexless
creatures that empathize with Ereshkigal's suffering, and thereby
gain a gift - Inanna's corpse. They restore her to life with
the Bread of Life and the Water of Life, but the Sumerian underworld
has a conservation of death law. No one can leave without providing
someone to stay in their stead. Inanna is escorted by galla/demons
past Ninshubur and members of her family. She doesn't allow them
to claim anyone until she sees Dumuzi on his throne in Uruk.
They then seize Dumuzi, but he escapes them twice by transforming
himself, with the aid of Utu. Eventually he is caught and slain.
Inanna spies his sister, Geshtinanna, in mourning and they go
to Dumuzi. She allows Dumuzi, the shepherd, to stay in the underworld
only six months of the year, while Geshtinanna will stay the
other six. (Wolkstein & Kramer pp. 60-89) As with the Greek story
of the kidnapping of Persephone, this linked the changing seasons,
the emergence of the plants from the ground, with the return
of a harvest deity from the nether world. Although he had always
been a shepherd (and possibly a mortal king) he was blessed with
the powers of fertility following the consummation of his marriage
to Inanna in The courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi. As the farmer,
let him make the fields fertile, As the shepherd, let him make
the sheepfolds multiply, Under his reign let there be vegetation,
Under his reign let there be rich grain (Wolkstein & Kramer p.
45) Geshtinanna is also associated with growth, but where her
brother rules over the spring harvested grain, she rules over
the autumn harvested vines (Wolkstein & Kramer p. 168) V. What
are 'me' anyway? Another important concept in Sumerian theology,
was that of me. The me were universal decrees of divine authority.
They are the invocations that spread arts, crafts, and civilization.
The me were assembled by Enlil in Ekur and given to Enki to guard
and impart to the world, beginning with Eridu, his center of
worship. From there, he guards the me and imparts them on the
people. He directs the me towards Ur and Meluhha and Dilmun,
organizing the world with his decrees. Later, Inanna comes to
Enki and complains at having been given too little power from
his decrees. In a different text, she gets Enki drunk and he
grants her more powers, arts, crafts, and attributes - a total
of ninety-four me. Inanna parts company with Enki to deliver
the me to her cult center at Erech. Enki recovers his wits and
tries to recover the me from her, but she arrives safely in Erech
with them. (Kramer & Maier 1989: pp. 38- 68) VI. I've heard that
there are a lot of Biblical parallels in Sumerian literature.
What are they? Traces of Sumerian religion survive today and
are reflected in writings of the Bible. As late as Ezekiel, there
is mention of a Sumerian deity. In Ezekiel 8:14, the prophet
sees women of Israel weeping for Tammuz (Dumuzi) during a drought.
The bulk of Sumerian parallels can, however be found much earlier,
in the book of Genesis. As in Genesis, the Sumerians' world is
formed out of the watery abyss and the heavens and earth are
divinely separated from one another by a solid dome. The second
chapter of Genesis introduces the paradise Eden, a place which
is similar to the Sumerian Dilmun, described in the myth of "Enki
and Ninhursag". Dilmun is a pure, bright, and holy land.
It is blessed by Enki to have overflowing, sweet water. Enki
fills it with lagoons and palm trees. He impregnates Ninhursag
and causes eight new plants to grow from the earth. Eden, "in
the East" has a river which also "rises" or overflows,
to form four rivers including the Tigris and Euphrates. It too
is lush and has fruit bearing trees. In the second version of
the creation of man "The Lord God formed man out of the
clay of the ground and blew into his nostrils the breath of life,
and so man became a living being." Enki and Ninmah (Ninhursag)
use a similar method in creation man. Nammu, queen of the abyss
and Enki's mother, bids Enki to "Kneed the 'heart' of the
clay that is over the Abzu " and "give it form"
(Kramer & Maier p. 33) From there the similarities cease as the
two create several malformed humans and then the two deities
get into an argument. Returning to Enki and Ninhursag, we find
a possible parallel to the creation of Eve. Enki consumed the
plants that were Ninhursag's children and so was cursed by Ninhursag,
receiving one wound for each plant consumed. Enlil and a fox
act on Enki's behalf to call back Ninhursag in order to undo
the damage. She joins with him again and bears eight new children,
each of whom are the cure to one of his wounds. The one who cures
his rib is named Ninti, whose name means the Queen of months,
(Kramer & Maier 1989: pp. 28-30) the lady of the rib, or she
who makes live. This association carries over to Eve. (Kramer,
History Begins at Sumer 1981: pp. 143-144) In Genesis, Eve is
fashioned from Adam's rib and her name hawwa is related to the
Hebrew word hay or living. (New American Bible p. 7.) The prologue
of Gilgamesh may contain the predecessor to the tree of knowledge
of good and evil. This tree not only contains a crafty serpent,
but also Lilith, the legendary first wife of Adam. The huluppu
tree is transplanted by Inanna from the banks of the Euphrates
to her garden in Uruk, where she finds that: ...a serpent who
could not be charmed made its nest in the roots of the tree,
The Anzu bird set his young in the branches of the tree, And
the dark maid Lilith built her home in the trunk. (Wolkstein
and Kramer 1983: p. 8) Another possible Sumerian carry-over related
to the Fall of man is the lack of "pangs of childbearing"
for those in Dilmun. In particular, Ninhursag gives birth in
nine days, not nine months, and the pass "like good princely
cream" (Kramer 1981: p. 142,145) or "fine oil"
(Kramer &
Maier 1989: p. 25) The clearest Biblical parallel comes from
the story of the Flood. In the Sumerian version, the pious Ziusudra
is informed of the gods decision to destroy mankind by listening
to a wall. He too weathers the deluge aboard a huge boat. The
flood lasts a long time, but Ziusudra comes to rest within seven
days and not the Biblical forty days. He does not receive a covenant,
but is given eternal life. VII. Sources Crawford, Harriet, _Sumer
and the Sumerians_, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991.
Kramer, Samuel Noah, and Maier, John, _Myths of Enki, the Crafty
God_, Oxford University Press, New York,1989. Kramer, Samuel
Noah _The Sumerians_ The University of Chicago Press, Chicago,1963.
Wolkstein, Diane and Kramer, Samuel Noah, _Inanna: Queen of Heaven
and Earth_, Harper & Row, NY, 1983. _The New American Bible_,
Catholic Book Publishing Co., New York, 1970. VIII. Other books
of interest Hooke, S. H. _Middle Eastern Mythology_, Penguin
Books, New York, 1963. Jacobsen, Thorkild, _The Treasures of
Darkness_, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1976. Kramer, Samuel
Noah, _History Begins at Sumer_, University of Pennsylvania Press,
Philadelphia, 1981. Kramer, Samuel Noah, _Sumerian Mythology_,
Harper & Brothers, New York, 1961 Wooley, C. Leonard, _Excavations
at Ur_, 1954 see also the Assyro-Babylonian Mythology FAQ. |